What’s new in terms of weight management?

Introduction

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in companion animals is estimated to affect up to 60% of the pet population and continues to rise globally. Obesity is recognized as a disease on its own and is associated with reduced lifespan and diminished quality of life, as well as an increased risk of numerous comorbidities. These include orthopedic disorders, glucose and insulin dysregulation, certain cancers, urinary tract disease, and hypertriglyceridemia (1). In addition, overweight cats have been shown to exhibit elevated feline pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (fPLI) concentrations compared with lean cats, although it remains unclear whether this finding reflects subclinical pancreatitis or represents a metabolic alteration secondary to excess body weight (2). Beyond the direct health effects, pet obesity can also impose financial and emotional burdens on owners, who are often unaware of their pet’s body condition and may use food as an emotional means of expressing affection (1).

Obesity management may also negatively affect the wellbeing of veterinarians. Three major stressors have been identified: 

1. frustration and sadness associated with treatment failure 
2. lack of owner understanding
3. poor owner compliance with prescribed treatment plans

These factors can contribute to professional stress and compassion fatigue, as the veterinarian’s desire to promote health may conflict with the owner’s reluctance, resistance, or inability to implement obesity management recommendations (3).

Although successful weight loss has been shown to improve health, welfare and longevity, achieving and maintaining weight reduction in overweight and obese pets remains challenging in general practice. A recent study reported low overall weight-loss rates, with more dogs gaining than losing weight over time (4). Furthermore, veterinarians were found to underutilize specialized weight management diets, and often experienced difficulties communicating effectively about healthy weight. On the veterinary side, contributing factors to poor outcomes include a lack of prioritization, limited consultation time (typically only 15-20 minutes per pet), and insufficient provision of detailed dietary advice – despite the availability of informative guidelines and practical tools for clinical use, such as those provided by national and international professional veterinary bodies.

Given the high prevalence of obesity, its profound negative impact on pet health and welfare, and its effects on veterinarian wellbeing, a comprehensive strategy is urgently needed to address this growing problem. This strategy should encompass both prevention and treatment; however, in light of the low success rates of treatment, prioritizing preventive measures may offer a more effective approach to mitigating the obesity epidemic in companion animals. The aim of this paper is to provide first-line veterinarians with practical guidance to improve success rates in both the prevention and management of obesity in pets and to highlight recent developments relevant to everyday clinical practice.

Prevention

Prevention is essential in addressing the growing pet obesity epidemic, with both veterinarians and veterinary technicians/nurses playing a critical role. Effective prevention begins with the early identification of at-risk individuals and proactive owner education to mitigate weight gain from the outset (Figure 1). Numerous risk factors contributing to obesity have been identified at both the animal and owner levels, and while some of these factors are non-modifiable, others can be influenced through targeted interventions.

The following section provides an overview of key pet- and owner-related risk factors to assist veterinary professionals in identifying patients at increased risk of developing overweight or obesity. Practical strategies specifically for veterinary teams will then be discussed.

Owner risk factors

Owners of obese pets are more likely to prioritize food over play, misinterpret attention-seeking behavior as food-seeking, and generally exhibit less stringent control over feeding practices (1). Additionally, an owner’s parenting style may be associated with an increased risk of pet overweight and obesity. Specifically, “permissive parenting” – characterized by high responsiveness and low demandingness – has been found to be overrepresented among owners of overweight and obese dogs. This elevated risk may stem from a greater tendency to use food as a means of pleasing the pet, combined with lower expectations or enforcement of physical activity (5). Veterinary teams can play a crucial role in supporting owners to establish healthy routines around feeding and exercise, beginning early in the pet’s life (1).

Pet risk factors

When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, body weight increases. Although this energy imbalance underlies weight gain, multiple additional factors influence this equilibrium. Well-established risk factors include breed, age, and neuter status (1), and several genes that play a role in energy metabolism have also been implicated in the development of obesity in dogs and cats (6,7). Veterinary teams can play a key role here, particularly in relation to gonadectomy, the prescription of appetite-stimulating medications, and the diagnosis and management of orthopedic conditions that reduce physical activity.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity is highest in mature animals – 50.1% of dogs and 44.8% of cats are classified as overweight, and 12.6% of dogs and 21.7% of cats as obese. However, excess weight is present across all life stages. Notably, a proportion of puppies (9.5%) and kittens (10.7%) in the late growth phase were reported as already being overweight, which is associated with an increased risk of being overweight or obese in adulthood (8). Rapid growth rates have also been linked to a higher risk of developing excess weight later in life (1).

Gonadectomy is a well-documented risk factor for obesity in both sexes. It is associated with increased appetite, reduced physical activity, decreased metabolic rate, and altered feeding behavior (Figure 2) (9). In cats, neutering can reduce energy requirements by up to 30% (10) and voluntary food intake can increase by up to 50% when food is provided ad libitum (11); moreover, the acute increase in food intake can be age-dependent. For example, hyperphagia is more pronounced in female cats neutered at 31 weeks compared to those neutered at 19 weeks (12). Conversely, later neutered kittens exhibit a less pronounced growth trajectory than those neutered earlier (13), so further research is warranted to elucidate the effects of neutering age on growth and long-term weight outcomes.

Reduced activity levels, sometimes secondary to orthopedic conditions, also contribute to obesity risk (1); daily energy requirements in animals with orthopedic disorders can be significantly decreased (14). Pharmacological interventions may also influence weight status; for example, glucocorticoids are known to induce polyphagia (1), and dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (IE) treated with antiseizure drugs (ASD) are similarly at increased risk of weight gain. ASD have been shown to elevate food motivation, and at the same time IE dogs tend to be less active. In addition, owners frequently use treats to administer medication, and whilst some owners attempt to reduce meal sizes to compensate, this does not appear sufficient to prevent weight gain (15).

How can veterinary teams support owners?

A comprehensive assessment of both pet- and owner-related risk factors can assist veterinarians in identifying animals at high risk of weight gain, as well as modifiable factors to target for preventive strategies (see Box 1). Questionnaires, such as the Dog Obesity Risk and Appetite (DORA) questionnaire, which evaluate canine traits (e.g., food motivation), health factors, and owner-related behaviors, may help veterinary teams more accurately identify patients predisposed to obesity (16).

Box 1. Some key points for preventing obesity by the veterinary team.

Veterinary teams play a crucial role in supporting pet owners from the earliest stages of life. During the first puppy or kitten visit, they can use growth charts and provide nutritional counseling to prevent rapid growth and early-life overweight, while promoting healthy feeding and activity habits. This includes guidance on appropriate food choices and portion sizes, the use of food puzzles, limited use of treats, selection of suitable treats, and alternative non-food ways of expressing affection, as well as recommendations for regular physical activity.
Nutritional management and close monitoring of growth rates are also essential to prevent post-neutering weight gain, particularly in at-risk individuals. At this stage, a specially formulated diet can be prescribed that accounts for reduced energy requirements while still meeting all essential nutrient needs for growth. Advice on ways to increase activity levels should be incorporated into these consultations.

Early recognition and effective management of orthopedic conditions are also critical to prevent animals from entering a vicious cycle of weight gain and worsening mobility. Furthermore, when prescribing medications known to increase appetite (e.g., those inducing polyphagia), the clinician should proactively discuss management strategies and provide ongoing support to mitigate the risk of weight gain.

All recommendations should be individualized, regularly monitored, and adjusted as necessary to ensure optimal outcomes for each patient.

Treatment

The cornerstone of obesity treatment in companion animals is the establishment of a negative energy balance, achieved by reducing energy intake through a balanced weight-loss diet and increasing energy expenditure via enhanced physical activity. A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that canine diets with reduced energy density (< 3,275 kcal/kg DM), fat (< 10% DM), and carbohydrates (< 40% DM), combined with higher protein (> 25% DM) and total dietary fiber (> 12% DM), facilitate effective weight loss in dogs (17).

However, applying these principles in practice is often challenging. Communication, psychological factors, and nutritional management are just as important as caloric restriction and exercise. Before initiating a weight-loss program, it is essential to assess the owner’s readiness; if pressured into a program prematurely, it may result in frustration for both the veterinarian and the owner, as well as wasted time and financial resources. Instead, time should be invested in educating owners about the health risks associated with obesity and the benefits of weight reduction (Box 2) (1,18). A recent study investigating pet owner motivation and decision-making styles found that health concerns were the main motivational factors, suggesting that emphasizing on improved life expectancy may be a particularly effective communication strategy (19).

Box 2. Some key points to increase owner engagement and motivation.

Once the owner is ready, treatment should be individualized. Households with young children, elderly owners, or individuals frequently away for work each require tailored advice and practical strategies (Figure 3). The use of smart technologies may be beneficial for some owners – for example, smart feeders can help ensure appropriate food portions in multicat households (1,18). Many owners view enrichment feeding as a form of mental stimulation that reduces begging behavior, increases satiety, and provides mutual enjoyment (20). Simple strategies – such as moving the food bowl to different locations or playing “find the food” – can encourage physical activity in cats (Figure 4). Because feline activity patterns typically involve short bursts rather than sustained exertion, activity plans should mimic this natural behavior (21).

Identifying barriers and “no-go” situations is equally critical. For instance, if feeding a dog four times daily is impractical, using automatic feeders may be a better alternative than insisting on an unmanageable schedule (Figure 5). Similarly, when reducing treats proves difficult, allowing small quantities of low-calorie treats – or using palatable treats for medication administration – can help maintain adherence, provided these calories are included in the diet plan. The veterinary team should emphasize practical solutions rather than focusing on obstacles (1,18).

Owner motivation

Understanding owner motivation and decision-making can guide veterinarians in communication strategies to improve compliance and success rates. A recent study reported that “identified regulation” (defined as behavior valued and perceived as a choice, though not inherently enjoyable) was the predominant motivational style, while “rational” was the most common decision-making style among pet owners in weight-loss programs (19). Practical recommendations derived from this include offering owners external rewards (e.g., prizes, discounts), providing dietary options, giving positive feedback, organizing support groups, avoiding negative comments, and explaining the rationale behind professional recommendations. Importantly, individual variation exists, and veterinarians should always respect each client’s preferences and motivational style. Further research is needed to clarify how these psychological factors influence the success of weight-loss programs and how veterinary teams can best apply this knowledge in practice (19).

Facilitating every step of the process for owners is essential (1,18). For example, if physiotherapy or behavioral consultations are indicated for their pet, these should be made accessible – obesity is a common reason to recommend physiotherapy in cats (21). Adjunctive pharmacological treatments may also have potential. To date, only one study has evaluated the use of liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogue in overweight and obese dogs; in the study 7/14 dogs received liraglutide for 40 days, with a further 7 dogs acting as a lean control group. The drug was found to reduce appetite and body condition score, but did not significantly affect body weight loss compared to the other groups. Larger and longer-term studies are needed before GLP-1 analogues can be recommended for clinical use in weight-loss plans (22).

Finally, structured follow-up is critical for a successful outcome and should be organized by the veterinary team rather than left to the owner. A coordinated, team-based approach – ensuring consistent messaging among veterinarians, veterinary nurses/technicians, and (when applicable) nutritionists or specialists – is essential (1,18).

Conclusion

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in companion animals remains high and continues to increase. This has significant negative impacts on health, welfare, and lifespan, and the veterinary team plays a crucial role in both prevention and management; however, treatment success rates are often low, which can lead to frustration among professionals and pet owners alike. Contributing factors include limited owner understanding and compliance, as well as time constraints during veterinary consultations. A collaborative approach involving the entire veterinary team can effectively address the obesity epidemic in companion animals by emphasizing both prevention and improved treatment outcomes.

References

1. Shepherd M. Canine and feline obesity management. Vet. Clin. Small Anim. 2021;51:653-667. doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2021.01.005.
2. Jørgensen FK, Bjornvad CR, Krabbe B, et al. Evaluation of laboratory findings indicating pancreatitis in healthy lean, obese, and diabetic cats. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2025;39:e17236, doi.org/10.1111/jvim.17236.
3. Fraser-Celin VL, Boulton A, Keil K, et al. When veterinarians treat plus-sized pets: Insights for veterinary practice. Can. Vet. J. 2024;65:920-926.
4. Haddad KK. How successful are veterinary weight management plans for canine patients experiencing poor welfare due to being overweight and obese? Animals. 2024;14:740. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14050740.
5. van Herwijnen IR, Corbee RJ, Endenburg N, et al. Permissive parenting of the dog associates with dog overweight in a survey among 2,303 Dutch dog owners. PLOS ONE. 2020;15(8):e0237429. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237429.
6. Antkowiak M, Szydlowski S. Uncovering structural variants associated with body weight and obesity risk in labrador retrievers: a genome-wide study. Front. Genet. 2023;14:doi 10.3389/fgene.2023.1235821.
7. Jerjen CP, Kumaran SJ, Liesegang A, et al. Melanocortin-4 receptor and proopiomelanocortin: Candidate genes for obesity in domestic shorthair cats. Animal Genet. 2023;54(5);637-642. Doi 10.1111/age.13335.
8. Montoya M, Peron F, Hookey T, et al. Overweight and obese body condition in ~4.9 million dogs and ~1.3 million cats seen at primary practices across the USA: Prevalences by life stage from early growth to senior. Prevent. Vet. Med. 2025;235:106398.
9. Bastan I. Possible relationship between long-term post neutering complications in dogs and caregiver burden in the owners. Front. Vet. Sci. Sec. Animal Reproduction – Theriogenology. 2025;12;1-6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1532039.
10. Martin L, Siliart B, Dumon H, et al. Leptin, body fat content and energy expenditure in intact and gonadectomized adult cats: a preliminary study. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2001;85:195-199.
11. Backus RC, Cave NJ, Keisler DH. Gonadectomy and high dietary fat but not high dietary carbohydrate induce gains in body weight and fat of domestic cats. Br. J. Nutr. 2007;98: 641-650.
12. Allaway D, Gilham M, Colyer A, et al. The impact of time of neutering on weight gain and energy intake in female kittens. J. Nutr. 2017;6:e19. Doi: 10.1017/jns.2017.20
13. Salt C, Butterwick RF, Henzel KS, et al. Comparison of growth in neutered Domestic Shorthair kittens with growth in sexually-intact cats. PLOS ONE. 2023;18(3);e0283016
14. Pedrinelli V, Porsani MYH, Lima DM, et al. Predictive equations of maintenance energy requirement for healthy and chronically ill adult dogs. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2019;105 Suppl 2:63-69. Doi: 10.1111/jpn.13184.
15. Morros-Nuevo A, Packer RMA, Regan N, et al. Caregiver-reported increased food motivation and adiposity in dogs receiving antiseizure drugs. Vet. Rec. 2024;e4907. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.4907
16. Raffan E, Smith SP,O’Rahilly S, et al. Development, factor structure and application of the Dog Obesity Risk and Appetite (DORA) questionnaire. Peer J. 2015;3:e1278; Doi 10.7717/peerj.1278.
17. Vanelli K, Wisneski RF, Estevão C, et al. Impact of hypocaloric diets on weight loss and body composition in obese dogs: A meta-analysis. Animals. 2025;15:210.
18. Murphy M. Obesity treatment: environment and behavior modification. Vet. Clin. Small. Anim. 2016;46;883-898. doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2016.04.009.
19. Vaduva FM, Rollins A, Jugan MC, et al. Identified-regulation motivational style, health factors, and rational decision-making drive pet owners’ participation in pet weight loss programs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2025;263(9):1146-1152.
20. Heys M, Lloyd I, Westgarth C. “Bowls are boring”: Investigating enrichment feeding for pet dogs and the perceived benefits and challenges. Vet. Rec. 2023;194(4);e3169. Doi: 10.1002/vetr.3169
21. Goldberg ME. Physical rehabilitation of cats. J. Feline Med. Surg. 2025;27;1-8.
22. Dik B, Hatipoglu D, Kahraman O, et al. Liraglutide as a novel therapeutic for overweight in canines: A clinical study. Vet. J. 2025;313:106376.